Models and Different Types of Models in Ob - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 4 Words: 1130 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2017/09/14 Category Advertising Essay Did you like this example? Nonverbal communication Nonverbal communication (NVC) is usually understood as the process of communication through sending and receiving wordless messages. i. e. , language is not the only source of communication, there are other means also. NVC can be communicated through gestures and touch (Haptic communication), by body language or posture, by facial expression and eye contact. NVC can be communicated through object communication such as clothing, hairstyles or even architecture, symbols and infographics. Speech contains nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, including voice quality, emotion and speaking style, as well as prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation and stress. Dance is also regarded as a nonverbal communication. Likewise, written texts have nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words, or the use of emoticons. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Models and Different Types of Models in Ob" essay for you Create order However, much of the study of nonverbal communication has focused on face-to-face interaction, where it can be classified into three principal areas: environmental conditions where communication takes place, the physical characteristics of the communicators, and behaviors of communicators during interaction. [1] History The first scientific study of nonverbal communication was Charles Darwins book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872). He argued that all mammals show emotion reliably in their faces. Studies now range across a number of fields, including , linguistics, semiotics and social psychology. Arbitrariness While much nonverbal communication is based on arbitrary symbols, which differ from culture to culture, a large proportion is also to some extent iconic and may be universally understood. Paul Ekmans influential 1960s studies of facial expression determined that expressions of anger, disgust, fear, joy, sadness and surprise are universal. Proxemics: physical space in communication Proxemics: physical space in communication Proxemics is the study of how people use and perceive the physical space around them. The space between the sender and the receiver of a message influences the way the message is interpreted. The perception and use of space varies significantly across cultures[3] and different settings within cultures. Space in nonverbal communication may be divided into four main categories: intimate, social, personal, and public space. The term territoriality is still used in the study of proxemics to explain human behavior regarding personal space. [4] Hargie Dickson (2004, p. 69) identify 4 such territories: 1. Primary territory: this refers to an area that is associated with someone who has exclusive use of it. For example, a house that others cannot enter without the owner’s permission. 2. Secondary territory: unlike the previous type, there is no â€Å"right† to occupancy, but people may still feel some degree of ownership of a particular space. For example, someone may sit in the same seat on train every day and feel aggrieved if someone else sits there. 3. Public territory: this refers to an area that is available to all, but only for a set period, such as a parking space or a seat in a library. Although people have only a limited claim over that space, they often exceed that claim. For example, it was found that people take longer to leave a parking space when someone is waiting to take that space. . Interaction territory: this is space created by others when they are interacting. For example, when a group is talking to each other on a footpath, others will walk around the group rather than disturb it. Chronemics: time in communication Chronemics is the study of the use of time in nonverbal communication. The way we perceive time, structure our time and reac t to time is a powerful communication tool, and helps set the stage for communication. Time perceptions include punctuality and willingness to wait, the speed of speech and how long people are willing to listen. The timing and frequency of an action as well as the tempo and rhythm of communications within an interaction contributes to the interpretation of nonverbal messages. Gudykunst Ting-Toomey (1988) identified 2 dominant time patterns: Haptics: touching in communication A high five is an example of communicative touch. Haptics is the study of touching as nonverbal communication. Touches that can be defined as communication include handshakes, holding hands, kissing (cheek, lips, hand), back slapping, high fives, a pat on the shoulder, and brushing an arm. Touching of oneself may include licking, picking, holding, and scratching. [7] These behaviors are referred to as adapter or tells and may send messages that reveal the intentions or feelings of a communicator. The meaning conveyed from touch is highly dependent upon the context of the situation, the relationship between communicators, and the manner of touch. [8] Humans communicate interpersonal closeness through a series of non-verbal actions known as immediacy behaviors. Examples of immediacy behaviors are: smiling, touching,open body positions, and eye contact. Cultures that display these immediacy behaviors are known to be high contact culturesFunctions of nonverbal communication Argyle (1970) [11] put forward the hypothesis that whereas spoken language is normally used for communicating information about events external to the speakers, non-verbal codes are used to establish and maintain interpersonal relationships. It is considered more polite or nicer to communicate attitudes towards others non-verbally rather than verbally, for instance in order to avoid embarrassing situations [12]. Argyle (1988) concluded there are five primary functions of nonverbal bodily behavior in human communication:[13] * Express emotions * Express interpersonal attitudes * To accompany speech in managing the cues of interaction between speakers and listeners * Self-presentation of one’s personality * Rituals (greetings) Concealing deception Nonverbal communication makes it easier to lie without being revealed. This is the conclusion of a study where people watched made-up interviews of persons accused of having stolen a wallet. The interviewees lied in about 50  % of the cases. People had access to either written transcripts of the interviews, or audio tape recordings, or video recordings. The more clues that were available to those watching, the larger was the trend that interviewees who actually lied were judged to be truthful. That is, people that are clever at lying can use voice tone and face expression to give the impression that they are truthful [14] Difficulties with nonverbal communication People vary in their ability to send and receive nonverbal communication. Thus, on average, to a moderate degree, women are better at nonverbal communication than are men [36][37][38][39]. Measurements of the ability to communicate nonverbally and the capacity to feel empathy have shown that the two abilities are independent of each other [40]. For people who have relatively large difficulties with nonverbal communication, this can pose significant challenges, especially in interpersonal relationships. There exist resources that are tailored specifically to these people, which attempt to assist those in understanding information which comes more easily to others. A specific group of persons that face these challenges are those with autism spectrum disorders, including Asperger syndrome. Footnotes 1. ^ a b Knapp Hall, 2002, p. 7 2. ^ Grammer, Karl, Renninger, Leeann Fischer, Bettina (2004): Disco clothing, female sexual motivation, and relationship status: is she dressed to impress? Journal of sexual research 41 (1): 66-74. 3. ^ Segerstrale Molnar, 1997, p. 235 .

Reflect of Globalization on International Business

Globalization refers to the increasing unification of the worlds economic order through reduction of such barriers to international trade as tariffs, export fees, and import quotas. The goal is to increase material wealth, goods, and services through an international division of labor by efficiencies catalyzed by international relations, specialization and competition. It describes the process by which regional economies, societies, and cultures have become integrated through communication, transportation, and trade. The term is most closely associated with the term economic globalization: the integration of national economies into the international economy through trade, foreign direct investment, capital flows, migration, the spread of†¦show more content†¦the fact that the market is highly competitive, the poor would be pushed out of game and this would even increased income disparities with in the industrial countries .the multi-national institutions which have small cap ital in industrial countries, may transfer to the countries with lower cost. These institutions would easily make profits in the expense of the poor. Then power would be shifted from local institutions to trans-national ones. Many agree that globalization by itself is not a problem. But, laws which are designed to regulate the global transactions shall consider the existing realities the failure of which may rise various impediments against globalization. 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Project management is a Complex Process Ensuring Project Success

Question: Discuss about the Project management is a Complex Process for Ensuring Project Success. Answer: Introduction: The study has been conducted to support the fact the project management is a critical task in context of time, scope and risk. The project management can be referred as the complete process of applying techniques, knowledge, skill, experience and effort for achieving specific project objectives within agreed upon budget and time (Kerzner 2013). Discussion and Analysis: Variables are the most important part in every project in terms of bringing success. There are several variables that presents in a project for management such as cost, risk, scope, plan, stakeholders, communication, etc. Therefore following are the three major variables that influence in effective project management Scope: Managing scope throughout a project is a critical task. The continuous change in the scope of a project is known as the scope creep. It can also be stated as the feature creep, focus creep, requirement creep and function creep. In a project the scope creep can be referred to as the unclear changes in the project and later integrated goals (Giezen 2012). The sources of the project scope creep are such as; first, the project initiation document holds the project scope which is poorly demonstrated. Without the proper documentation of the project requirements the project manager can not accurately manage the project. Second, improper identification of project management requirements is another cause of scope creep. If the business analysts forget to document few crucial requirement of the project then the manager will not be able to deliver the project as per the client expectations (Haughey 2014). The third reason behind the project scope creep is the ineffective control of project manager on the project. Another big reason is the indecisiveness of the project stakeholder in terms of the scope and functionality of the project. Because of the scope creep the project manager as well as the organization will face various issues regarding the project. As new requirements will be integrated in the project, the manager has to make changes in the process of the project management. The project manager may have to change major aspects of the project. This will result into more time and cost to develop the project. Instead of assigning additional cost and time, the managers are not always able to make the final product as efficient as expected (Giezen 2012). It is because the continuous changes in the development hamper the effectiveness of the manager which results into the missing of functionalities in the product. Time: Another variable that affects the progress of the project management is time. It may appear as a simple factor in projects but serves as the most crucial constraint in every project. Specific time is provided to the project manager for completing the project. The project managers are not always able to deliver project within given time and the reasons are poor punctuality, impatience, procrastination, rushing and improperly defined objectives (Bowen et al. 2012). The effect scope creep on completing a project on time has already been discussed. If the project managers take low priority tasks lightly and do not complete those tasks on time then at the final phases of the project the whole process get delayed because of the unclear low priority tasks. Every individual task in the project management has allotted time period (Nouraei, Momeni and Hamidizadeh 2016). Often managers rush to complete tasks faster than expected which create some error in the solution. At the end when the efficiency of the product of that specific task is tested, the project manager has to allocate extra time for making progressive changes to make the outcome as expected (Eik, Landmark and Johansen 2015). The managers some time ignore some aspects of the project as they assume it as an unimportant component. When the users ask for that ignored functionality or component, the manager has to carry out changes in the product which may take same time as the complete development itself. These reasons make several bad impacts on the project. Insufficient work flow is a result of improper management of time within a project. Waste of time is an avoidable outcome of the poor utilization of time. Miss of dead line is the most common result. Approximately all the project that is affected by poor use of time faces deadline missing issue. As the work has to be done again, the employees do not take the work as seriously as the first time (Bowen et al. 2012). The changes that are made in the project are not done effectively. As the user needs the product as soon as possible, they also receive the revised product. There exist several quality issues in the product. Risk: A condition or event which is uncertain and if arises, definitely affects at least one goal of the project is sated as project risk. Risks are main factor behind minimizing the possibility of making a project successful. In terms of executive the reasons behind the risks are lack of support, disengaged from the project, clash among the executive stakeholder and turnover of executive. The issues with the scope of the project also create risks (Kerzner 2013). The inaccurately defined scopes, scope creep, integration of further scopes by the team members, inaccurate estimate and dependencies. Another crucial reason behind the occurrence of risk is issues with the stakeholders. Inaccurate expectations and failure to support the project is considered as the biggest drawback of the stakeholders which create possibility of generating risk (Teller, Kock and Gemunden 2014). The project is disrupted if the stakeholder experience turnover or get disengaged at the time of development of the project. Low quality inputs can also be considered as the source of project risk. The project risk can hamper the overall progress of the project in various ways such as increase in budget, effort, design reviews, duration and design cycle (Schwalbe 2015). Conclusion: From the study it can be concluded that time, scope and risk can have huge bad impact on the projects. The both the scope and risk can affect the time constraint. No matter how much project manager tries to handle the project efficiently, the negative effect of the project variables will continue making the project management task a critical one. The risk has the worst effect on the project as the sources of project are way more than other variables. For making the impact of these variables as low as possible the managers make use of the various management processes. References: Bowen, P.A., Cattel, K.S., Hall, K.A., Edwards, P.J. and Pearl, R.G., 2012. Perceptions of time, cost and quality management on building projects.Construction Economics and Building,2(2), pp.48-56. Eik-Andresen, P., Landmark, A.D. and Johansen, A., 2015. Managing cost and time in a large portfolio of projects.Procedia Economics and Finance,21, pp.502-509. Giezen, M., 2012. Keeping it simple? A case study into the advantages and disadvantages of reducing complexity in mega project planning.International Journal of Project Management,30(7), pp.781-790. Haughey, D., 2014. Eight key factors to ensuring project success.Project Smart, pp.1-4. Kerzner, H.R., 2013.Project management: a systems approach to planning, scheduling, and controlling. John Wiley Sons. Nouraei, R., Momeni, M. and Reza Hamidizadeh, M., 2016. Identification and Prioritization Effective Inter-Project and Environmental Challenges on Implementation of Project Management System (Case study: Projects of Pars Special Economic Energy Zone).European Online Journal of Natural and Social Sciences: Proceedings,4(1 (s)), pp.pp-1827. Schwalbe, K., 2015.Information technology project management. Cengage Learning. Teller, J., Kock, A. and Gemunden, H.G., 2014. Risk management in project portfolios is more than managing project risks: A contingency perspective on risk management.Project Management Journal,45(4), pp.67-80.